● Cocaine consumption reduces the potassium current in affected cells.
● Decreasing the potassium currents elicits burst action potentials.
● Produced bursts might have chaotic behaviors.
● Chaotic oscillations might be related to the toxic effects of cocaine.

Drugs of abuse such as cocaine can manipulate brain circuits and may form some pathological memories. These memories can lead to long-term addiction. Furthermore, these drugs also can have toxic effects on the cells. Researchers are looking for the mechanisms that can lead to abnormal memories and toxic effects of drugs. It seems that an efficient mechanism that can be used by drugs of abuse is the manipulation of potassium currents in the affected cells. Here, in a computational model, we have shown that changes in the conductance of delayed rectifying potassium channels can lead to nonlinear and even chaotic behaviors in the produced action potentials. These behaviors might have a role in drug toxic effects.

●    Centella asiatica (CA) improved the STZ-induced working memory deficit. 
●    CA could prevent hippocampal neural cell loss dose-dependent manner.
●    CA improved memory through mitigating neuronal loss in hippocampus.

Memory loss is the first signs of dementia. It is well known that a healthy diet might be as good for your brain as it is for your heart. Numerous traditionally used medicinal herbs could significantly affect key events culminating in de-mentia and Alzheimer's disease. Centella asiatica, commonly known as Gotu Kola or Indian Pennywort, is a tropical, medicinal plant native to Southeast Asian countries. It is one of the becoming popular medicinal plants in the world. Centella asiatica (CA) is widely used in different traditional medicine systems for various purposes, such as reducing blood pressure, memory enhancement, and promoting longevity. In the present study, we tested the possible impact of CA leaf and stem extract in an animal model of memory damage. Memory impairment was induced in adult rats by intracerebral infusion of a neurotoxin chemical. Then, the memory-impaired animals were orally treated with 150-300 mg/kg of CA extract for 21 days. Finally, we tested their working memory by placing them in a Y-maze apparatus. Furthermore, their most involved brain part (hippocampus) was dissected, and its cell density was evaluated. Our find-ings exhibited that CA treatment considerably improved rats' memory performance, indicating by enhancing working memory score in the Y-maze task. In addition, CA treatment significantly prevented neuronal cell loss in the hippo-campus of memory-impaired rats. This study shows that CA has beneficial effects on memory and cognitive function. 

•   Dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier, migration of inflammatory cells into the Central Nervous System (CNS), and an increase in the pro-inflammatory factors, are the hallmarks in the pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE).
•    The optimal effects of probiotic strains may involve the simultaneous use of more than one strain.
•    Probiotic Enterococcus durans and Lacto-mix have a preventive effect against EAE.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a myelin-degenerating autoimmune disease in the central nervous system. Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE), due to its similar clinical and pathologic features to MS, is widely used in many model studies of this disease. The microbiome refers to a genomic set of germs (bacteria, arches, fungi, and vi-ruses), a commensal flora that lives in the intestine and niche of humans and other mammals. The microbiome affects the host’s physiological system, especially the balance between health and disease. Additionally, the importance of the microbiome is evident in regulating the intestine-brain axis, or the coordination of the digestive and the central nervous system. In this regard, probiotics, including lactobacilli, have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. Probiotic strains have a wide range of health-improvement effects, and a combination of strains with specific properties provides a broader range of antimicrobial spectrum and stronger anti-inflammatory effects. Considering the critical role of probiotics in the immune system, this study aimed to investigate the possible role of Enterococcus durans alone or in combination with Lactobacillus mixture (L. rhamnosus, L. casei, and L. plantarum) on the EAE animal model of MS. 

•    A simple and precise method has been introduced for creating Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) in mice by a novel device.
•    The device consists of a body part, an immobilization piece, and a bar-shaped weight.
•    Assessment of locomotor activity, tissue damage, and macrophage infiltration confirmed the capability of the new SCI method.
•    Reduction of adverse spinal movements and working without any accessory elements are the key points of this new animal model of SCI.

Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) is a medical problem that can cause the permanent motor and sensory dysfunction. Traffic accidents, falls, and violence are the most frequent causes of SCI, often affecting young people. Patients and even their families may encounter other problems, including reducing life quality, psychological burden, and enormous medical costs. Despite scientific and technological advances, no effective treatment has been found for SCI. Therefore, animal models help study damage mechanisms and evaluate novel treatment strategies. All SCI research centers require an economical and reproducible device without using complex surgical procedures by experienced surgeons to minimize variations in damage to the spinal cord. In this study, a simple, cheap, and reproducible novel instrument for SCI in-duction is introduced. The instrument consists of various parts, including a body part, an immobilization piece, and a bar-shaped weight. An 8-g weight was used for 5, 10, or 15 minutes to inflict injury to the spinal cord. Behavioral and tissue studies indicated that SCI could be induced in rodents in different severity without other elements. This instru-ment can be used in future investigations for SCI studies, including tissue engineering, stem cell therapy, and drugs delivery to access effective treatment.

• This study showed that rat hair follicle stem cells are suitable for cell culture, proliferation and differentiation
• The results suggested that transplantation of rat hair follicle stem cells had the potential capability of regenerating sciatic nerve injury
• Evidence of electrophysiology and histology showed Concomitant use of epineurium with hair follicle stem cell was more effective repairment.

Although repairing damaged peripheral nerves has always been a medical challenge, but peripheral nerve injury has been successfully repaired using various procedures such as nerve auto-graft or stem cell therapy. The functional reconstruction is the most important after therapy because of that primary nerve repair or use of nerve autograft, are still accepted as golden standard methods for treatment. Considerable recent interest has been focused on adult stem cells for both research and clinical applications. A highly promising source of relatively abundant and accessible, ac-tive, multipotent adult stem cells are obtained from hair follicles. In research the hair follicle stem cells implanted into the gap region of a severed sciatic nerve injury greatly enhanced the rate of nerve regeneration and the restoration of nerve function. Time is one of the several aspects require specific attention in the clinical treatment of peripheral nerve injury. Because delay of nerve injury treatment may cause neurobiological alterations in neurons and Schwann cells, impairing nerve functional recovery and affect neuron survival. In this study, concluded that stem cell injection 2 weeks after injury in the damaged nerve epineurium repairs nerve fibers, while electrophysiology of the leg muscles showed that muscle function was significantly improved. It indicates the repair of muscular innervation and nerve repair. The results pave the way for further research on this topic.

●    MCAO results Infarct Volume (IV) and Neurologic Deficit Score (NDS);
●    MCAO upregulated NCX3 gene expression in brain tissues;
●    Viola spathulata extract  pretreatment decreased IV and NDS in brain ischemia;
●    Viola spathulata pretreatment downregulated NCX3 gene expression in brain tissues.

Stroke is the second leading cause of death and long term disability. Recently it has been reported that herbal extracts have protective role in ischemia injury. In Iranian traditional medicine Viola plant has a long history to treat disorders such as cancer. So we designed an animal study to investigate Viola plant extract in brain ischemia injury. Viola spathu-lata extract was administrated to rats for seven days, then animal model of brain ischemia was operated on them and some behavioral, histological and molecular factors were analyzed. Our findings showed that Viola spathulata extract improved behavioral disability, decreased infarct volume in brain tissue, and modulate Sodium/Calcium exchanger 3 gene expression. It could be concluded that Viola spathulata has the neuroprotective effect in animal stroke model and is a good candidate for nutritional supplements, although further studies are needed.

●    LZNFB training showed higher decrease in opioid craving than the Cognitive rehabilitation in opioid addicts. 
●     Cognitive rehabilitation group experienced greater improvement on attentional bias towards craving cues than LZNFB.
●    LZNFB and Cognitive rehabilitation with MMT group got higher scores on the recovery assessment scale than MMT alone group. 
●    LZNFB training is more effective than Cognitive Rehabilitation in decreasing of craving in addiction. opioids.

Addiction is a chronic relapsing disease that makes many problems for human society. Routine medical treatments are not completely effective and they have relapse. New forms of non-medical treatments such as neurofeedback and cognitive rehabilitation are effective and safe  without impressive side effects . This article shows the efficacy of above mentioned interventions for decrease craving and control of this  problem. 

●    LH stimulation enhances sensitization to the ineffective dose of morphine
●    Intra-VTA OX1 receptor involves in morphine sensitization-induced by LH stimulation
●    Intra-VTA OX2 receptor involves in morphine sensitization-induced by LH stimulation

Behavioral sensitization, such as sensitization to the antinociceptive response of drugs, which defines as an enhanced systemic reaction to the same dose of addictive drugs, occurs in response to continuous and intermittent administra-tion of these drugs. The Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) sends the orexinergic projections to the various regions of the brain and stimulation of LH induces sensitization to the antinociceptive response of morphine. The Ventral tegmental area (VTA) is a region of the brain that is strongly involved in developing morphine sensitization and receives orex-inergic projections of LH. The current study aimed to examine the role of orexin receptors within the VTA in the LH stimulation-induced sensitization to the antinociceptive response of morphine in rats. In this study orexin-1 (OX1) and orexin-2 (OX2) receptors within the VTA region were blocked using their antagonists.  After five minutes chemical stimulation of LH was done using carbachol microinjection into this area and ineffective dose of morphine was injected subcutaneously. These interventions were done for three consecutive days as sensitization period. After a 5-day free drug period, on the ninth day, for assessing the morphine sensitization, the nociceptive response was measured. The results revealed that the concurrent administration of LH stimulation and an ineffective dose of morphine significantly induced morphine sensitization. Besides, the blockade of OX1 and OX2 receptors within the VTA before LH stimula-tion attenuated sensitization to the antinociceptive response of morphine. Therefore, the orexinergic system plays an important role in morphine sensitization and can be considered as one of the potential targets to increase the analgesic effect of morphine.

●    Hydroalcoholic extract of S. lavandulifolia attenuated the PTZ-induced seizures in a dose dependent manner.
●    Pretreatment with flumazenil (blocker of benzodiazepines receptor) reversed anti-seizure effect of S. lavandulifolia extract.
●    Combination of an ineffective dose of diazepam and S. lavandulifolia extract decreased PTZ-induced seizures. 

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders after stroke and is characterized by recurrent seizures due to abnormal excessive neural activity in the brain. Although there are many anticonvulsant drugs on the market, not all patients with epilepsy can be treated and one-third of patients suffer from recurring epilepsy despite using different antiepileptic drugs and more than 50% of them show side effects drugs during treatment. So, it is necessary to conduct further studies to develop more effective anti-epilepsy drugs with the minimum side effects. In recent years, plenty of studies have been conducted on medical plants, and S. lavandulifolia reported among the Iranian traditional medicine with antianxiety and sedative features. Some studies have mentioned the sedative and anti-inflammatory function of S. lavandulifolia, and its significant effects on anxiety have been approved comparable to diazepam. Overall, consider-ing the anti-anxiety, analgesic, and sedative effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of S. lavandulifolia, it might possess anti-convulsive effects, too. The purpose of the current study was designed to investigate whether the effect of intra peritoneal injection of hydroalcoholic extract of S. lavandulifolia on the PTZ-induced convulsion in male mice and as-sessed the role of benzodiazepine and opioid receptors. Results of this study demonstrated that S. lavandulifolia extract attenuated the PTZ-induced seizures in a dose dependent manner, and pretreatment with flumazenil (blocker of benzo-diazepines receptor) reversed this effect. However, pretreatment with naloxone (Non-selective blocker of opioids re-ceptor) could not reverse this effect but the combination of an ineffective dose of diazepam and S. lavandulifolia extract decreased PTZ-induced seizures , thus anti-epileptic effect of S. lavandulifolia mediated by benzodiazepine receptors. 

●    Multiple Sclerosis,
●    Inflammation,
●    Blood-brain-barrier dysregulation

Inflammation activity in MS patients has an important role to cause BBB dysfunction.in this article to achieve results to confirm the inflammation importance in MS patients with acute lesions. MRI modality have been used and with comparison between acute and chronic lesions and NAWM of MS patient’s presence of inflammation have been proved.

•    The study subjects generated 8.3±4.1 words in one minute in the letter fluency test.
•    Letter fluency was associated with educational level and mother tongue.
•    The Mean±SD number of generated words in semantic fluency (18±5.5) was higher than letter fluency. 
•   Semantic fluency was associated with age, gender, education level, and mother tongue.

Practitioners use neuropsychological tests to diagnose mental problems. Verbal fluency is a test in which participants have to generate as many words as possible from a specified category in a given time. This category can be phonemic (letter), which means words beginning with a specified letter or semantic, including objects such as animals or fruits. The number of words produced by participants is essential, and if it is fewer than normal, it shows psychological or neurological conditions such as Alzheimer disease. The norms are variable in different languages, cultures, and edu-cational levels. We found that the Mean±SD numbers of generated words in letter fluency and semantic fluency were 8.3±4.1 and 18.0±5.5, respectively. These values can be used for neuropsychological testing in the Iranian population.

●    Importance of Information processing in microtubules;
●     Microtubules could store and process information in the nervous system;
●     Unicellular organism, Paramecium caudatum, has a microtubular structure but lacks a neuron or neural network.

Information processing in microtubules is an open question that has not been adequately addressed. It was suggested that microtubules could store and process information in the nervous system or even support consciousness. The unicellular organism, Paramecium caudatum, has a microtubular structure but lacks a neuron or neural network. However, it shows intelligent behaviors such as associative learning. This property may suggest that the microtubules are involved in intelligent behavior, information storage, or information processing in this organism. To test this hypothesis and study the role of microtubules in P. caudatum learning, we utilized a learning task in which the organism associates brightness in its swimming medium with attractive cathodal shocks. To see if microtubules are an integral part of information storage and processing in P. caudatum, we disrupted the microtubular dynamics in the organism using an antimicrotubular agent (parbendazole). We observed that while a partial allosteric modulator of GABA (midazolam) could disrupt the learning process in P. caudatum, the antimicrotubular agent could not interfere with the learning. Microtubules are probably not vital for the learning behavior in P. caudatum. Consequently, our results call for further investigation of the microtubular information processing hypothesis.